Free Response Question: Peter and Catherine the Great

Free Response Question:

Analyze the methods and degrees of success of Russian political and social reform
from the period of Peter the Great (1689–1725) through Catherine the Great
(1762–1796).

Thesis: During the reign in Russia of Peter the Great, 1689 to 1725, and Catherine the Great, 1762 to 1796, they both instituted many reforms focusing on improving the country to a more powerful level by modernizing it in ways such as Peter creating the city of St. Petersburg, strengthening the military, and implementing stately manners for people of the court while Catherine focused much of her attention on expanding the empire.

Outline

Peter the Great

- Built St. Petersburg in roughly 9 years

- Increased the army’s size

- Created a navy

- Traveled Europe and learned carpentry, seaman ship, and fortresses

- Extremely interested in western Europe and their modern styles

Catherine the Great

- Focused mainly on expanding the Russian Empire

- Around 200,000 miles added

- Fought with the Ottoman Empire and Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

During the 17^th and 18^th century, while most of Europe was progressing along nicely, Russia was struggling. That is until the reign of Peter the Great. This man was one of the strongest rulers Russia had ever seen who lead Russia into the modern era of the world. During the reign in Russia of Peter the Great, 1689 to 1725, and Catherine the Great, 1762 to 1796, they both instituted many reforms focusing on improving the country to a more powerful level by modernizing it in ways such as Peter creating the city of St. Petersburg, strengthening the military, and implementing stately manners for people of the court, while Catherine focused much of her attention on expanding the empire and patronizing the arts.

During one of Peter the Great’s several wars, he started the creation of St. Petersburg. It was built on the basis of Peter and Paul fortress that was used to fight the Swedes. Because of its position, it cost much man power, money, and supplies to build. With the climate being as it was, and food and housing not in good supply, many soldiers and peasants died in the city’s creation. However, it soon became the capital of Russia due to the hatred Peter the Great had for Moscow. He had the nobility live in St. Petersburg several times throughout the year so he could keep track of them. This new capital soon became the “Window to the West”. From his rule in St. Petersburg, Peter the Great could easily keep track with the modern times in Western Europe and implement them into Russian society. As many of his reforms took place, Peter the Great was creating a new leading power in Europe.

Not only did Peter the Great build a new capital, but he also strengthened his military and tried to change Russian society. One of the reasons for the new capital was that it was located on the Neva River which enabled Peter to create a navy. Building a navy was a goal of Peter’s and he spent several months learning how to build and sail in order to possess a strong navy. With the help of Dutch shipmasters, Peter the Great was able to accomplish his goal of creating a navy even if the port was frozen for part of the year. Not only was he interested in military affairs, but that of political affairs as well. He made everyone change their habits to incorporate more European ideas. This included having everyone shave and trim their beards. Peter even took the liberty to cut them himself. Since he wanted to be a European power, he tried to make everyone act the part of a leading power in Europe. During his reign, Peter the Great undoubtly made the country stronger; however some of his reforms caused the poorer citizens of Russia to take an even bigger hit, making it harder for them to support themselves. It is said that royal families called the Boyars, consisting of 200-300 families, owned roughly 40,000 serfs alone. With statistics like this, even if the country is strong, overall, the country has a weak internal structure that if not pleased or satisfied, will cause problems in the future.

After the rule of Peter the Great was that of Catherine the Great. She took control of the empire from her husband, Peter III, and continued to improvise and build up the reforms of Peter the Great. Without Peter the Great to create the reforms and Catherine the Great to continue them, Russia would not be the same to this day. Catherine focused much of her power on expanding the territorial boundaries and creating a smarter more intellectual country. She was a great diplomat who was able to make Russia an important figure in international affairs. Catherine was a patron of the arts and so encouraged and helped build libraries, museums, and academies. From the strength of the Russian empire left to her by Peter the Great, Catherine the Great was able to take it one step further in making it a leading power in Europe.

The reigns of both Peter and Catherine the Great were important eras in Russian history. Without these two great figures, Russia may not be where it is to this day. Peter focused on a stronger more modernized Russia and Catherine built upon his ideas to make it that much better. These two monarchs are responsible for creating an entire new capital, modernizing the entire country, and improvising the state of the citizens with more land and new universities. These two powerful figures were successful in their attempt to reform and create a modern Russia.

Exam

Describe and analyze how overseas expansion by European States affected the global trade and international relations from 1600 to 1715.

Outline-

Dutch- very powerful shipping, had 10,000 ships in their fleet, shipped from new world, had a colony called new Holland but was taken over by English, English had naval battles with them

England- went to the new world, created several colonies, james town, Plymouth rock

Spain- cortez and pizzarro

Portugal- many explorers like Da Gama, henry the navigator

After the age of the Renaissance, exploration took off. The Renaissance was the cause of many inventions and innovations that helped explorers. The invention of the astrolabe and smaller, faster seaworthy craft allowed explorers to travel farther and faster. The European countries took to exploration with a passion. The overseas expansion by European states affected the trade and international relations in many ways beginning with the tension between the Dutch and English, the English and Spanish, and the trade with other countries including Japan, the new world, south America and Africa and the Spanish due to the explorers from each country.

During the 17^th and 18^th centuries religious strife was common. The Thirty Years War was the last of the major wars of religion ending in 1648. This established the Dutch as a republic with a relative religious freedom, England as a protestant nation, and Spain and Portugal as Catholics. The Dutch were very strong in trade. It was their life. They had a very strong shipping fleet consisting of 10,000 vessels. This was the largest trading fleet in Europe. This allowed them to travel all over the world and create their golden age. The Dutch were able to flourish because they were able to travel all over the world because they were not bent on conquering any nations. This is why the Dutch were able to trade with Japan after they cut themselves off from the rest of the world. However, because of their strength in trading this created internal tension in Europe. The English became affronted by their power and attacked the Dutch. This was a huge blow to the Dutch who were no longer able to rise to their once glorious power.

England during the reign of Elizabeth I from 1558 to 1603 was essentially their golden age. They had sent out many explorers to discover new land and trade areas. Elizabeth I also hired men called privateers such as Sir Francis Drake to attack Spanish vessels and steal their gold and other valuables. They were essentially pirates legalized by Elizabeth I to keep the Spanish at bay and to make them less powerful. This created conflict between the Spanish and English and in 1588 the Spanish sent an armada to England to defeat them. However, due to powerful storms and the more agile and seaworthy craft, the English were able to defeat the Spanish decisively. The English created several colonies in the New World. The two most well known towns were James Town and Plymouth. Most of these were pilgrims that fled for religious purposes. Nevertheless, they traded with England to send back furs, tobacco and other valuables that could not be found in Europe.

The Spanish and Portuguese were responsible for some of the most well known explorers such as Vasco Da Game, Henry the Navigator, Cabral, and Christopher Columbus. The first three were responsible for findings of Africa and areas in that region while Christopher Columbus unknowingly found the New World. Because of this discovery, trade with the Americas and the Caribbean flourished. They were able to trade for sugar cane, tobacco and many other valuable resources. This ultimately lead to the slave trade because of the need for manual labor. The Spanish were responsible for the decline of the Inca and Aztec empires due to Pissarro and Cortez respectively. These empires were very wealthy and had large amounts of gold. Because of this, the Spanish decided to transport all of the gold back to Spain. This is when the English privateers were extremely successful in looting the Spanish. The relations between the English and Spanish had a lot of tension. They did not like each other very much due to the competition between the two.

The relations between the European countries were very fragile. Each country was interested in their own trading and to be the most successful. This lead to problems between the Dutch and English, and the English and the Spanish. The Dutch were able to trade the farthest and most successfully due to their lack of aggression. The Japanese saw this and were willing to trade with them when they shut themselves off from the rest of the world. However, the most tension was between the Spanish and English. Over all, without each of these countries the world would not be the way it is to this day.

Discuss the social and political consequences of the protestant reformation in the first half of the sixteenth century.

Outline

Germany

Martin luther- augistinian monk in wittenburg germany, 95 thesis, wanted to fix the corruption of the catholic church, said priests could marry, salvation on faith alone, no one could say what God wanted

John calvin-

England- Henry VIII and parliament passed the act of supremecy giving the right for the king of England to control its own religion. Became Anglicans.

French huegonouts

Eventually lead to the 30 years war

The Protestant Reformation began during the same time of the Northern Renaissance. This was the leading factor behind the Northern Renaissance, while the Southern Renaissance was focused more on trade and art. The Protestant reformation was born due to the corruption of the Catholic Church taken action by Martin Luther and John Calvin, the desire for King Henry VIII of England to divorce his wife, and helped along by the Dutch.

The Protestant Reformation was born because several people were willing to stand up against the injustices of the Roman Catholic Church. Martin Luther saw that the Catholic Church was selling indulgences which forgave people’s sins for a price. Martin Luther was obsessed about himself and his own good deeds and wondering if he was forgiven by God to allow the Church to sell people slips of paper to be forgiven. He nailed his 95 Thesis on the Wittenburg Church door in Saxony which listed his complaints with the Roman Catholic Church. He was taken before the Diet of Worms which had the right to outlaw him or have him burned at the stake. After he escaped his sentence of being burned at the stake and new religion was born: Lutheranism. This lead to political ramifications everywhere. The German princes soon adopted Lutheranism and this created strife with the Holy Roman Emperor who was Catholic. John Calvin soon created Calvinism which is similar to Lutheranism but they believe in predestination. The Peace of Augsburg was a document that allowed the German Princes to choose their own religion in their own principality. However, they could only choose between Lutheranism or Catholicism. This created political strife because some of the inhabitants of Germany wanted Calvinism.

King Henry VIII was the King of England during the Protestant Reformation. He helped the reformation along by breaking away from the Roman Catholic Church and making himself the head of the Church in England. He got Parliament to pass the Act of Supremacy in 1534 which gave him the power to create and form his own church. This caused many social and political problems everywhere. The citizens of England were forcibly converted or prosecuted. This means that no one had a choice, they had to be protestant or they were persecuted. Throughout the future of England, wars were fought and Kings and Queens based their rule on the fact that they were Protestant or Catholic.

The Dutch was a very understanding country. They mostly allowed freedom of religion and did not persecute people. This was because they had broken away from the Hapsburgs and Spain itself and created their own Republic. This country had a very high social class who were very wealthy and successful. The Dutch could be seen as the United States of America of its time. They allowed the protestant reformation to expand and to flourish because of their religious toleration. They did not face many political problems because of the reformation, just on their successfulness as a trading empire.

The Protestant Reformation caused many political and social problems in Europe. The Germans had many political problems because Lutheranism was so popular. England turned Protestant because its King wanted the power to divorce his wife. From then on, the rulers of England were either protestant or catholic and caused many fights and wars. The people faced a different social problem in which they would be persecuted because of their religion and their neighbors could never be fully trusted. This reformation was the cause of the Thirty Years War in the 17^th century and lead to much debate from all.

Analyze the concerns and goals of participants in the Pilgrimage of Grace and of those who opposed the movement.

Participants- doc 1 people do not want the government to invoke on their rights of taxation “expel all evil councilors”

Doc 2 the government does not protect them from thieves and scots so they hav to rely on charity, faith, pity, and poverty

Doc 4- a song that explains how the government wants them to be in bonds, robbed and spoiled of house cattle and land

Doc 5 want the church to go back under the pope and be how it was before

Doc 6 speaks against the king

Opposed

Doc 7 thomas Cromwell has Richard Morrison write that if everyone rules who shall obey. He says the better must rule the rest.

Doc 9 by king henry VIII telling that the rebellion has given comfort to their enemy the scots. God commands them to obey all sovereign things pardons them if they repent

Doc 10 convicted 144 of treason 65%

The English reformation put the country in turmoil. Some of the people agreed with the King and him ruling the Church while others wanted to go back to being Roman Catholic. These people who wanted the things to go back the way they were were known as the Pilgrimage of Grace. The goals of the Pilgrimage of Grace were to get things back to the way they were, while the people opposed which were the King, his advisors, and nobility were trying to put the the Pilgrimage of Grace and get them to accept the reformation.

The Pilgrimage of Grace was everyone who opposed the change in religion. The King of England had passed the Act of Supremacy in 1534 which gave tremendous power to the King. He was now head of the church, passed new taxes, took land away from the Catholic Church, and dissolved the monasteries. A main concern of the Pilgrimage was that the King wanted worldly gain (doc. 1). They wanted to purify the nobility and expel all evil councilors (doc. 1). The Pilgrimage had many complaints about the King and how they did not protect the citizens from the Scots and thieves (doc. 2). The Pilgrimage of Grace had many concerns which included no protection from thieves and Scots, being robbed of cattle, house, and corn, and being held in bonds (doc. 4). These concerns were legitimate because it was of their welfare. The King was making more taxes and not protecting its citizens which made it hard for them to live. The Pilgrimage made demands to have the Supreme head of church be the Pope, monasteries and lands restored to the Roman Catholic Church, heretics burned, and to have Thomas Cromwell punished (doc. 5).

The King of England and all of his supporters had one goal in mind: to become more powerful and make the King Head of the Church in England. They accomplished this by the passing of the Act of Supremacy. He was now able to tax the people more heavily, took away the lands of the monasteries, and gave more royal power to areas in the north. When the rebellion of the Pilgrimage was in full force, the King made a statement that it was helping their enemies the Scots and that he will give them mercy if they repent (doc. 9). He had Thomas Cromwell write a letter for him explaining if everyone rules who would obey (doc . 7). The King succeeded in his goal of gaining more power because the rebellion died and he was still in power. Overall he convicted nearly 144 people which was 65% of all tried (doc. 10). King Henry VIII was a very powerful man who was able to maintain his strength and remain the head of the Church in England.

The Pilgrimage of Grace were concerned with their own welfare and simply wanted to go back to the Roman Catholic Church. However, King Henry VIII wanted more power and so he kept his new rules and regulations making himself powerful and the citizens more vulnerable.

DBQ

Analyze how political, religious, and social factors affected the work of scientists in the sixteenth and seventeen centuries.

Over the course of history the world went through changes of dark depressions and ages of enlightenment. During the Renaissance, this became the age of enlightenment. People began to wonder and think more. They became more interested in how things worked and why things are. Because of this, it lead to a race toward knowledge. Many people wished to help in the race toward knowledge in sixteenth and seventeenth century Europe but it was limited to men who either did it for God or to prove him wrong and to gain political advantage for themselves and family.

Back in the ages of the enlightenment and that of the renaissance, men were the superior sex. Everything was done by men or for men. Women were treated alright, but they did not have the same powers that men controlled. They were considered to be inferior and men would try to stop their actions. “Were it allowable for our sex, I might set up my own school of natural philosophy. But I, being a woman, do fear they would soon cast me out of their schools (doc. 9). She realized that because of her sex, she would not be able to have as much of an impact on society as that of a male.

Many men of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth century were firm believers in God, yet did not let this stop them from experimenting and discovering new things that went against their religion. Copernicus chose to dedicate his work to “his holiness” and to benefit the church (doc. 1). However, he was most famous for his studies of the universe and that of heliocentrisim which went against the central belief of the church that the earth was the center of the universe. For his troubles he was put under house arrest for the rest of his life. John Calvin states that just because people reject what is unknown to them that science should not be condemned (doc. 2) In a letter to Galileo, an Italian monk says that people should allow those in authority of the scripture to interpret it to prevent malignant rumors (doc. 3) Many of the clergy and those of positions of power in the church were more likely to denounce science because of their strict beliefs. With church officials having so much power, it was hard for scientists to work unhindered. They were continuously harassed and put in jail or under house arrest like Galileo. The French monk Marin Mersenne, even though a clergy member, performed experiments and proved them 30 to 100 times (doc. 5). However, in his book, he gives the discretion of its information to his noble patron who can decide to either leave the information in or take it out. This hinders his ability to get out his experiments and tell the truth to the world.

People of political power tend to have more influence over everyone else. If they embraced science and those who practiced science, then knowledge would spread quicker and more easily. If people were friends, it would make it easier to share information and to convince others of new scientific theories (doc. 6) Henry Oldenbury believed this to be the way to spread and strengthen philosophy (doc. 6). The French finance minister, Jean Baptise Colbert realized how important science was and how beneficial it was to glory abroad and wealth at home, that they supported academics and in fact established several academies for letters and sciences (doc. 11). The French believed that to become wealthy and glorious abroad, they had to support the sciences. With this political help, scientists could now work without having to be hindered by opposition, since the right to study science was granted by the king.

During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries scientists were influenced by social, political, and religious factors. For women to not be able to participate in science proved to be a mistake. They wished to work and perform experiments just like men, but could not because of their gender. Religion was against science from the very beginning. The clergy members felt that science was impeding on their beliefs and taking followers from them. Thus many scientists were persecuted for practicing science. However, political factors in France helped scientists. The king himself backed up sciences and created academies in which people could study. He did this in order for glory abroad and wealth at home. Overall it was a difficult time for scientist to complete their work accurately and safely.

Free Response Thirty Years' War

Analyze various ways in which the Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648) represented a
turning point in European history.

In history, there have been countless wars fought to control other places. Europe was the central area of the world where the most power was held. This lone area had many countries which contained much power. However, this region was held in religious turmoil and countries continued to fight one another. The Thirty Years’ War, from 1618-1648, represented a major turning point in European history due to the consequences of the war which include the signing of the Treaty of Westphalia, the destruction of Germany, and France becoming the dominant power in Europe.

Europe faced so much destruction and death that the Thirty Years’ War had to come to an end. One of the ways to reach the conclusion of the war was the signing of the Treaty of Westphalia. This document successfully gave the rulers of the German Principalities the right to determine the religion of their own state and Calvinism was accepted. It also acknowledged the independence of the Dutch Republic from Spanish control and neutrality of Switzerland. This document helped to unify many countries such as France, England, and the Dutch. However, it left the German Principalities separated. Because the Treaty of Westphalia was signed, it essentially created the structure of Europe for the future. It provided the territorial boundaries for many nations and it made the citizens of a nation more inclined to follow their rulers and not those of religious based. The Treaty of Westphalia was an important document that helped to bring the Thirty Years’ War to an end and created a turning point in the History of Europe.

Germany was a major component in the Thirty Years’ War and for its actions, the land and people were devastated. Nearly one third of the entire population was killed. This is nearly the same ratio as the Bubonic Plaque that ravaged Europe. This is due to the fact that most of the fighting took place in the Holy Roman Empire.

At the outcome of the War, only one country can be seen as the winner: France. Technically, no country won, but France was better situated at the outcome of the war that it was the strongest and most unified. It tended to stay out of much of the war, and only intervened to support the faction that looked the most stable. This faction turned out to be the Protestants even though France was Catholic. It was only looking for its best interests at heart. This war essentially ended the Reformation because it was so bloody and many of the countries realized how costly it had been. France also realized how important it was to have an army of soldiers that were loyal to the government and so did away with mercenaries. The Thirty Years’ War brought about the turning point of dominant power in which France took the lead.

The Thirty Years’ War was a major turning point in Europe because of the impact of the war in itself and the consequences and outcomes of the war. The Treaty of Westphalia was signed which brought peace to the region and and structure for the future of Europe. Germany was destroyed and setback while France took the lead, and became the dominant power in Europe. Without this war and its consequences, the Europe of today will not have been the same.